A Concise History of Education of Teachers, of Teacher Training andTeaching

Western history of teacher training, education history, teaching theories,education of teachers, modern history od education, began in early 18thcentury Germany: teaching seminaries educating teachers were the first formalteacher training in Western history of education and teaching.

(History of education had 2nd century-BC Greek Spartan free publiceducation, Athenian Academy until age 18 and higher Academy and Lyceum; Romanprivate formal schooling in tiers; China’s 1st century-BC administratorexaminations; 1st century Jewish informal Cul’ Tura general education; Islam’s9th century universities [madrasahs]; 16th century Aztec mandatory teeneducation; 18th century Russian nation-wide education, Poland’s EducationMinistry, Chez ‘teacher of nations’ Comenius’s ‘Didactica Magna’ on universaleducation [compulsory, certified teachers, tests]; leading later Westernhistory of education –17th century Scotland’s free education, 18th’s Norway’smandatory literacy and  New Zealand’s standard education, 21st’s Europe’sBologna process equalising educational qualifications.)

Teacher education and training, first teacher training college inFrench  history of education and history of teaching, Jean Babtiste de laSalle’s 18th century Brothers of the Christian schools, had non-clerical maleteachers teaching poor and middle class children. Based on Greek philosophers’philosophy of education and teaching, re-introduced by Islam, spirituality wasnot its only reason, basis of education. Teacher education and training hadbeen clerical –this was Western history of education’s first secular teachertraining college.

This philosophy of education changed educational history’s attitude toeducation. It reformed education, educational theory, learning, enabled furthereducation reforms and educational theories of teaching in history of education.With education reforms in education history, educational theory of teachereducation required of teachers an understanding of the human mind and thetheory of education, knowledge of sciences and arts, principles and educationalmethods of teaching. This need in educational history for a teaching method,method of education, necessitated theories of education -in Western history ofeducation educational theories on teacher education interested educators.

These educational philosophies and theories of education on teachereducation became the norm in Western history of education, teacher trainingestablishments first Normal Schools in the history of education and training ofteachers.

Teacher education progressed educational history: in history of educationand history of teaching the system of education required and enabled knowledge,in-service experience, certification for teachers, continuing professionaldevelopment for teachers in teaching. This non-uniform system of teachereducation and training enabled teachers, while teaching, at teacher seminars torefresh and increase their knowledge of theory of education and method ofteaching -exchanging ideas among teachers.

Napoleon, in history of education and teacher training,  uniformedprofessional teaching. Adopting Germany’s teacher seminars, in French historyof education and in Western history of education and training of teachers,established the first uniform teacher education system.

Neither the USA’s educational history nor British history of education didin educational philosophies, systems of education, include formal teachereducation and training, although Elizabeth-I had introduced teachers’ moralteaching fitness certification in teacher education .

In England’s history of education and teaching, in early 19th century JosephLancaster and Andrew Bell founded the Lancastarian teaching method of teachertraining: in a monitorial system of teacher education and training seniorstudents (‘monitors’) receiving teaching from tutors were teaching juniorstudents, acting as teachers.

In Scotland’s history of education and teaching, 17th century free educationcompulsory in late 19th, Germany’s teacher education and training influencedDavid Stowe’s founding the Glasgow Normal Seminary for teachers.

Progress in teaching and teacher training began with Horace Mann’sMassachusetts Normal Schools in the USA’s educational history, and in Britain’shistory of education by the churches’ and voluntary organisations’ teachertraining colleges and teaching the colonials.

In philosophies of education arguments followed on teacher education ineducational history: should persons of lower English social class attendteacher training colleges and give teaching to children of higher socialclass!? Might teachers’ teaching not influence young French minds with liberalideas?!

(Japan’s educational philosophy [perhaps influencing the USA's educationalphilosophy, history of education and teaching] emphasised patriotic teachereducation and teaching.)

In Europe’s history of teacher education and training, Rosencrantz’s 19thcentury ‘Philosophy of Education’ emphasised ‘philosophical and psychologicaldata’; this, resembling Islam’s university faculties, developed into separateteaching disciplines.

In Sweden’s history of education and teaching, Pestalozzi furthered theprogress of systems of education, advocating formal teacher trainingcolleges.

(Pestalozzi, except theologically, was self-educated, did not leave awritten account of teaching and of teacher training colleges; his place in thehistory of education and teaching is deducible in outline from his variouswritings, loving sincere deeds, the example he set.)

Germany’s Froebel, and Alexander Bain’s ‘Education as a Science’, favourededucation of teachers through teacher training colleges; teacher educationadopted what philosophies of education in Western educational history andteaching had lacked -Herbart’s pedagogical emphasis in teaching on five formalsteps: preparation, presentation, comparison, generalisation, application.

Germany’s teacher education and training became the basis of developments inthe history of education and teacher training; Derwent Coleridge and James KayShuttleworth in Britain, Mann in the USA broadly agreed: teacher education andtraining should emphasise techniques of teaching -”not only the subjects ofinstructions, but also the method of teaching”.

Jules Ferry laws’ compulsory education established teacher education andtraining in late 19th century French history of education: teacher educationand training, by law, should be through formal teacher training colleges.

English speaking countries’ history of education and teaching, formalteacher education and training, began with the University of Edinburgh’screating a chair in education, with St. Andrews; in the USA’s history ofeducation, e.g., Henry Bernard, Nicholas Murray Butler, followed.

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In Western history of education, England’s progress involved pedagogy andHerbart Sepencer’s teaching techniques in teacher education and training, theUSA’s e.g., Francis W. Parker’s, studying Germany’s pedagogical teachereducation developments.

In the USA’s history of education and teaching the Darwinian hypothesis (asbefore later scientific evaluation) influenced John Dewey at the University ofChicago Laboratory Schools; taking into account from other disciplines whatwere considered relevant in teaching to child development, the religiouslyaffiliated Brown University founded an education department.

(The La Salle College in Philadelphia, had been teaching education.)

New York’s Teachers College, founded 1888, was incorporated into theColumbia University, 1893, establishing its teacher training college,announcing: “The purpose of the Teacher Training College is to affordopportunity, both theoretical and practical, for the training of teachers, ofboth sexes, for kindergartens and elementary schools and secondary schools, ofprincipals, supervisors, and superintendents of schools, and of specialists invarious branches of school work, involving normal schools and colleges” -itbecame the basis, in Western history of education and teaching, of teachereducation and training and Teacher Colleges.

(The USA’s educational history experts’ versions vary on it history ofeducation.) 

In most of British Commonwealth’s history of education and system of teachertraining, entry into teacher training came to require senior secondaryeducation at High School level or British Grammar School education withnational Matriculation or Ordinary and Advanced General Certificate ofEducation (GCE) examinations –or equivalent.

In Europe’s history of education and teacher training, education withsimilar Gymnasium(/Abitur)  or General Lycè e Diploma, or equivalenteducation, became professional teacher education and training entryqualification.

(In British history of education, until early 20th century, holders of thosequalifications, by selection examination, could become temporary teachers.Oxbridge graduates could register ‘master’ and be syndicated teachers. Otheruniversities’ graduates, to become teachers, attended teacher training colleges[if Bachelor of Education, second year teacher training of a teacher trainingcollege].)

In British Commonwealth’s history of education greater importance wasattached to professionalism in teacher education and training: academicqualifications did not suffice for teaching; teacher examinations requiredspecific periods of specifically professional study in teaching. Professionalteaching involved two years’ professional study in teaching and additionalin-house teacher training before professional teacher status. Professionalteachers could, with another educational year at the teacher training college,specialise in a subject, e.g., geography or history (in farming colonies, e.g.,Cyprus where Agriculture became a secondary school examination subject, with one or two more educational years’ through the Teacher Training College’sRural Agricultural School). Science graduates without professional teachingtraining and education qualified for permanent teaching after a year’sclassroom teaching experience approved by professionally qualified headmasters,as teachers of their subjects. Teachers were expected to attend teachers’seminars as continuing professional development.

While professional qualifications are regarded for professional reasonsequivalent to doctorates in their counterparts and what qualify for teaching,teacher education and training (school age becoming lower and years less, toenable maturer teachers and teaching), for professional teaching knowledge andskills acquired at teacher training colleges, favoured bachelor degrees withteaching content emphasising skills over theory and, e.g., the USA’s academic‘first professional degree’ –more for research than professional practice.

(British history of education desired teaching with Post-graduateCertificate in Education [PGCE] -for English state school teaching QualifiedTeacher Status [QTS] skills test, and [also if Bachelor of Education]successfully completing an induction year [in Scotland two] in school teachingas Newly Qualified Teacher [NQT], with continuing professional development;alternatively a specific teaching degree or on-the-job teacher training.Teachers trained at Teacher Training Colleges in [former] colonies –andsimilarly trained teachers with GCSE [grade C] or equivalent in English andMathematics [for primary school teaching, also Physics] enjoy Qualified TeacherStatus.)

(Canada’s provinces or schools certify teachers; Australia requires none forfederally funded private schools; France’s is college/bachelor and TeacherInstitute [master's -2010].)

{In the USA’s history of education, until 1960s, one year’s teacher trainingcollege education was required for teacher certification. In 1984 an alternateteaching route was introduced: bachelor’s with teaching preparation and withina specified number of years completing a teaching or content based master’s.(Some universities award [with summer study] bachelor degrees in two years,some two bachelor degrees simultaneously [e.g., with two arts and two sciencemajors both BA Philosophy and BS ChE Chemical Engineering]; the  doctoralJD is pre-requisite to master’s LL.M which not all tenured professors needposses.) The ‘Master of Professional Studies’ (MPS) First Professional Degreeis academic, not professional. Many states require of teachers, for permanentteaching, examinations in pedagogy and a content area or general knowledgeaccredited by many private associations’ varying standards; in early 21stcentury Marlboro-Carolina 20% of teachers had no certification.}

In educational history post general education having been academic forcareer advancement and scholarly activity or research, or professional foractual practice in the filed, the professional qualification is normally theterminating qualification; in professional teaching, advanced professionaldegrees enabling specialised teaching, e.g., at universities, are not regardedas part of professional teacher education and training for general educationteaching; the USA’s main master’s area is for Ed.D or Ph.D. –research.)

In European history of education, teaching related educational leadershipgained importance at the end of 20th century. Desiring the benefits oflearnable leadership skills and inherent personal leadership qualities,teachers’ educational leadership skills in teaching leadership are remuneratedaccording to national teacher pay scales.

The USA’s educational leadership teachers’ pay is non-uniform; educationalleadership skills standards vary. Graduate educational leadership programs arein, e.g., community issues and educational law. Private Teacher AdvancementProgrammes (TAP) subscribed by some schools encourage teachers inadministrative or teaching development: a teacher prepares an individual growthplan (IGP) with an educational goal or teaching activity, or a cluster group ofteachers identify a student learning need, becoming ‘mentor’ or ‘masterteacher’/‘teacher of teachers’.

As others’, USA’s teacher training colleges’ comparable teachingqualifications enjoy international regard.

In their history of education, having less aspired to ‘practical’ generaleducation as in the USA and 21st century Britain, most British Commonwealth andEuropean teaching institutions almost uniformly value widely academic generaleducation as culture not acquirable in post general education (e.g., anopposition leader to a Prime Minister [both lawyers] “I as a Grammar Schoolboy” [would not take ‘that' from him who was not]) and Britain’s suggestion toequate practical skills certificates with general academic qualifications wascriticised.

(Early 21st century British educational history saw [university orequivalent  mandatory student grants becoming loans, unemploymentnecessitating longer and more courses, foreigners scoring higher in English] noincrease since late 20th in literacy.)

(In the USA’s history of education, with 20% adult functional illiteracy, asthe educationists’ concerns grew, the educationalists considered Europe’sbaccalaureate system of education; with growing public interest in education,at the end of 20th century a state appointed three generals to improve thestandards of teaching and education and at the beginning of 21st century ageneral was appointed to federally improve teaching and educationalstandards.)

In educational history interest in the teaching profession has been based onthe status of teachers. Regard for teachers in late 20th century was highest inRussia where teachers enjoyed better employment terms than elsewhere.

(In Britain’s history of education, 1980s’ miss-projection of numbers ofteachers needed necessitated engaging science graduates without teachingqualifications as teachers; but a status was enjoyed by teachers of regard asin Europe, and, about the end of 20th century, knighthood for long servingteachers was suggested –due to controversy over peerages it did notmaterialise. At the beginning of 21st century reducing undergraduate degrees totwo years with vocational content was considered, with master’s for teachers-also non-major professional qualifications being above undergraduate degreesin National Vocational Qualifications; but Teachers’ status was regarded tohave been equated for economical reasons to classroom assistants’ sociallycriticised for taking classes without professional teacher education andtraining.])

In the USA’s history of education, teaching has hailed a form ofessentialism in education, with a culture of practicality and model citizenry,emphasising respect for authority (advocated also for 21st century Britisheducation); with no general minimum standard in teacher training and education,some states not recognising the teaching qualifications of some others,teachers and teaching appear officially to enjoy no higher regard then BernardShaw’s remark (about writers) “Those who can, do; those who can not,teach”.

(In the USA, e.g., some teachers paid only term time having to seek vacationwork, teaching and teachers generally are regarded to have enjoyed less goodterms and conditions than elsewhere in proportion to social regard and publicresources.)

The growth of interest in culture and education in Western history ofteaching has been seen in the European Union, e.g., in Cyprus with thepopularisation of education in mid. 20th century -reportedly with highestpercentage of university graduates by 21st.

In Western educational reforms spiritual values in education are protectedby teaching religious studies in schools in American secularism (protection ofreligion from political influence) and by the religious affiliations of manyuniversities; in European secularism (protecting against one’s formal dominanceof the other), often with a state religion enshrined in the constitution, thisis ensured by, e.g., Britain’s Education Acts’ requirement in compulsoryeducation of religious worship by pupils at least once a month and, whileBritish universities are not formally religiously affiliated, the availabilityof  chapels and chaplains to students at universities.

While preferences in education (e.g., the pedagogy based Steiner-Waldorfeducation for creating free moral and integrated individuals -its teachers’ andschools’ say on defining the curricula by some disagreed with, or Montessori’spre-school and elementary school child’s self directed activities withauto-didactic equipment -regarded by some as risking raising obedientautomatons), and  emphasis (be it practical skills or Emerson’s ‘thinkingman’), have all had praise and criticism in the history of education andteaching and arguments continue on pragmatism and creation -v- evolution,generally Socrates’s argument that the rightly trained mind turns toward virtuecarries weight in most educational systems. Basically, in every history ofeducation, an important aim of education and the societies’ all timeexpectations have been on the lines of these verses (by the Cypriot teacher,the late Orhan Seyfi Ari):

” ‘I was an ape’ you say -or amphibian?And now?! Are you not now.. ‘man’!?“

The cultural values balance have been more reflected in the education andtraining of teachers in Western history of education and teaching and thestatus of teachers in Europe mostly in Spain, Italy and France where, withoutmuch disregard to spiritual values, school teachers’ political and ideologicalaffiliations have been the norm in professional teaching. 

The web site may interest on teacher the late Orhan Seyfi Ari atorhanseyfiari.com

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